Warfare in the Early Modern Period

The two centuries between the 15th and 17th centuries marked the age of the creation of vast overseas empires. The struggle for the seas and new territories divided Europe into two opposing camps.

Constant war conflicts increased military spending. This not only meant the flourishing of the defense industry but also led to the development of military technology. From the reign of King Louis XII (with an army of 30,000 to 40,000 soldiers) to the reign of Louis XIV (with an army of 300,000 soldiers), a steady increase in military forces was observed. This trend was also evident in the Netherlands, Flanders, and England. The same applied to naval forces. While in 1588 England faced Spain with about 15,000 men, eighty years later they defeated Spain with double the number. By around 1700, armies and fleets had not only become larger but also more complex and better equipped. At the beginning of the early modern period, land battles were mainly fought by infantry armed with spears. Cavalry, which had previously been the primary force, was relegated to the background. Firearms—both heavy artillery and light handheld weapons—initially played only a supplementary role on the battlefield. At sea, hand-to-hand combat was still common. Firearms were used not to sink enemy ships but to increase casualties among the opposing crews. By the end of the 1500s, infantry had been equipped with light firearms, and spears were used only in the rearguard. After the last traditional naval battle (Lepanto in 1571), drastic innovations took place in naval warfare. The backbone of the naval forces consisted of large sailing ships equipped with long-range cannons, which became the protagonists of the artillery duels that decided the outcome of battles.

The arms race became more intense in the 17th century. Huge fleets appeared on the seas, and ships differing from merchant vessels began to be built for military purposes, with larger tonnage, leading to an increase in crew sizes. On land, alongside the spread of light firearms, cavalry equipped with pistols and carbines revived. Maneuverable artillery began to play a more significant role in battles. The development and perfection of artillery led to the establishment of strong and stable defensive systems.

The innovations were made possible by advances in science and technology. The new fortification system owed much to the new results in mathematics and geometry. The spread of artillery was facilitated by the fact that cannons were increasingly cast from iron rather than bronze. The equipping of cavalry with firearms became possible only with the invention of thin-walled rifle barrels, the self-loading mechanism, and the appearance of spring-loaded or flintlock firing mechanisms. Tactical innovations and refined military technology also had a developmental impact on Europe's handicraft industries. Military suppliers and arms manufacturers accumulated vast fortunes. Some of their names have survived: the cannon caster John Browne, whose reputation spread beyond England and throughout Europe, or the De Geer, De Tripp, and De Becke families, who dominated Dutch and Swedish arms manufacturing. In some regions of Europe, we can observe an unusually high concentration of weapons and ammunition production, which largely depended on the weaponry needs of warlike rulers. One such area was the Bishopric of Liège, which became famous from the early 16th century for the production of handguns, ammunition, and musket and cannonballs, and was the main supplier to Spain from the reign of Charles V to the time of Charles II. The carbines and muskets from the Brescia area near Venice were highly regarded. In France, St. Etienne, Sedan, and Forez were significant arms manufacturing centers. In Germany, Augsburg, and Nuremberg, followed by Solingen and Essen, played a leading role. The first and most famous centers for bronze cannon manufacturing were in the Netherlands, southern Germany, and 16th-century Italy (Brescia, Venice, Milan). The casting of iron cannons began in Sussex in the 1540s. Due to their lower cost and better quality, these cannons posed a competitive challenge to European manufacturers by the end of the century. However, in the following century, English cannon manufacturing significantly declined due to a shortage of ammunition and strong foreign competition. The decline was so significant that England became reliant on imports. The competitors who pushed the British islands out of the market were Utrecht and Amsterdam. Their glory did not last long, as Sweden, with its vast iron and wood reserves, soon surpassed these Dutch cities in cannon production.

Domenico Sella " Die gewerbliche Produktion in Europa 1500-1700, in Europäische Wirtschaftsgeschichte 16.-17. Jh., Stuttgart-New York, 1979, ford. Surján Zsófia