The Intellectual Turmoil at the End of Antiquity

In the final, tumultuous centuries of the Roman Empire, the prevailing worldview was shaken. Old beliefs, ideas, and values were lost, and the poor sought hope. The ancient religion—the Roman mythology—gradually became hollow, reduced to bureaucratic rituals that could not be denied but could no longer inspire faith.

The three centuries during which Christianity transitioned from a persecuted faith to a compulsory religion were marked by an almost incomprehensible confusion of ideas. This chaos brought antiquity to a close and laid the groundwork for medieval thought. The Roman religion could no longer provide answers, so soldiers stationed in the provinces introduced the worship of unfamiliar gods to Rome. These gods' novelty, mystery, and straightforward teachings made them appealing. Isis and Serapis arrived from Egypt, Mithras from Persia, and Silvanus from Pannonia. Sanctuaries were built for them, and these new gods began to replace the traditional Roman pantheon.

The Mithras cult, in particular, offered a different kind of religious experience and became Christianity's main competitor. Its principles, mythology, and worldview originated from the ancient religion associated with Zoroaster. It recognized two deities: the good and radiant Ahura Mazda and the evil, dark Ahriman. Their struggle was seen as the eternal process of the universe. The Mithras cult presented a newer, more streamlined version of this belief system. It lacked a hierarchy of good and evil demons; instead, the heroic young Mithras stood in clear opposition to darkness, represented as a bull. Mithras triumphantly conquered the bull. The religion's fundamental moral commandment was that one must stand on the side of goodness, light, and integrity. Followers of Mithras did not deny the Roman gods but simply ignored them, allowing the cult to spread without hindrance.

With the emergence of Mani, this religion transformed into a philosophy with political influence. Mani was perhaps the most influential thinker of late antiquity—a religious founder, philosopher, statesman, and leader. His teachings, known as Manichaeism, blended the Mithras cult with Jewish, Christian, Greek Neoplatonic, and Gnostic elements. This fusion created a clear, coherent worldview that opposed oppression and inspired humanity. Mani, a Persian of royal lineage, was executed due to a dynastic shift. His death gave even greater momentum to his teachings, which spread beyond Iran to the Greek-speaking provinces and eventually Italy. His influence can be traced in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The core of his teaching was the eternal dualism of good and evil, their struggle, and mutual influence. People experienced this duality within themselves, making it easy to integrate this doctrine into their worldview.

The last significant Greek philosopher of antiquity, Plotinus, established Neoplatonism. He created a mystical philosophical system that could be seen as a theology for a religion. Thus, even Plato influenced those seeking faith, albeit filtered through Plotinus.

The later Greek schools had an even stronger impact: the Stoics, the Epicureans, and the Cynics. Stoicism, with its emphasis on moral rigor, self-discipline, and compassionate understanding of suffering, profoundly influenced Christianity, as evidenced by Seneca's writings. Epicurus' philosophy, a materialistic teaching rooted in natural knowledge, sought to promote inner peace. Its highest expression was found in Lucretius' poetry. Epicureanism idealized self-control, moderation, and culture as instruments of serenity. Over time, however, this philosophy became associated with immorality; in the final centuries of antiquity, it was used by indulgent, decadent, and drunken individuals to justify their hedonism.

Many fled the ideological confusion into skepticism, adopting Pyrrho's philosophy, which denied the possibility of knowledge and centered on doubt: "Everything is possible, but nothing is certain." Philo attempted to harmonize Plato's ideas with the Old Testament. His work significantly influenced the Gnostics, who alternately identified themselves as Christians or anti-Christians. They contrasted God the Father, the creator of the material world, with Christ, the spiritual God.

This chaos characterized the three centuries during which Christianity transitioned from a persecuted faith to a dominant one. The desire to escape this chaos explains why Christianity held such appeal, even at the risk of death.

Hegedüs Géza "A szent doktorok tudománya", Kozmosz könyvek, 1990