Lifestyle in Early Modern Europe

The tendency towards luxury and opulence manifested not only in the construction of urban palaces and rural estates but also transformed the lifestyle of the European upper class. Expensive carriages appeared in the streets. The interior design of homes became more refined, with silk wallpapers, tapestries, carpets, intricately crafted furniture, and silver cutlery and vessels all being indicators of this changed way of life.
The luxury industry catering to these new demands soon flourished. Silk production, which had previously been limited to a few Italian cities, spread to cities in Germany, the Netherlands, and England, but above all, France. By the end of the 17th century, there were about 8,000 looms operating in Lyon. French silk became one of the most sought-after fabrics, and other European countries tried to imitate French fashion trends. The high-quality, finely decorated lead-glazed earthenware was produced in Delft. After the Thirty Years' War, Augsburg and Nuremberg became the centers of gold and silversmithing. At the turn of the 17th century, tapestry weaving revived in Amsterdam, while in Venice, the declining economy found new strength in the creation of finely carved inlaid furniture. The demand for certain goods, such as glass, saw a significant increase. By the mid-1600s, heat-insulating glass panes had replaced the previously used waxed cloth or paper in windows. Improved heating came with the spread of tiled stoves.
This century also saw the introduction of bed linen and tablecloths. The rise in consumer demand was most noticeable in clothing. Silk garments appeared even in the wardrobes of the less affluent, due to their variety in color and pattern. Even lower-quality silk was preferred over durable woolen fabrics. The demand for displaying one's clothes and for pomp was facilitated by the relative cheapness of textiles and the increase in supply, which made the goods accessible to a wider range of buyers. The introduction of better techniques (silk mills, patterned fabric looms) aided the development and growth of silk production. Woolen products became more diversified to compete with silk. The variety of combed wool fabrics (flannel, serge, veils) became hugely popular among buyers. Their production began in the Low Countries in the 15th century. In the 1550s, Lille and Hondschoote were the leading centers. By the end of the century, these two centers had declined, and regions like Liège, Amiens, Leiden, Württemberg, and East Anglia took over. In the following century, the textile industry of the Spanish Netherlands revived, but it never regained its dominant position. Its competitors were East Anglia and the Netherlands. The success of combed wool fabrics lay in their diversity and affordability, which pushed simpler, everyday fabrics like frieze into the background.
The range of goods available to less wealthy consumers expanded with the appearance of printed books and clocks. The printing press began in the mid-15th century in the Rhineland, and it soon spread throughout Europe. By the end of the century, around 35,000 publications had been released in about 236 locations, totaling about 15 million copies. In the following century, 40,000 publications were released solely from the presses of Paris and Lyon. The most significant printing centers of the century, however, were Antwerp and Venice. In the 17th century, new centers of book publishing emerged: Amsterdam, Leiden, and London. The Frankfurt Book Fair attracted booksellers from far and wide. The rapid spread of printed books was driven by the sharp increase in literacy. Not only the intellectuals and the rich but also artisans began to have a need for reading material. The main catalyst for the widespread dissemination of printed books was the Reformation. People eager for religious renewal eagerly bought Bibles printed in the national languages. In addition to religious literature, secular literature also had a significant presence, though to a lesser extent. The first century of printing was the era of wandering printers. These solitary craftsmen traveled from city to city, seeking patrons and interested buyers. They were, in essence, typesetters, printers, publishers, and booksellers all in one. With the emergence of large printing workshops, the roles of type founders, printers, and correctors became separated and developed into distinct professions. Books were sold by specialized booksellers, initially at fairs.
A strange new device began to appear in homes: the clock. Mechanical timepieces have a long history. The origin of clocks working with waterwheels and weights goes back to the 13th century. The clocks of the 14th and 15th centuries were characterized by a diversity of shapes, patterns, and structural complexity. These clocks did not just tell time; they also showed the months, seasons, and the movements of planets and stars. These large clocks were expensive, and only rich cities and churches could afford them. The first major technical breakthrough came in the 15th century. The invention of the spiral spring as a driving force allowed for miniaturization, the production of portable clocks, and the improvement of design. All this led to the widespread use of clocks in the 16th and 17th centuries. By around 1680, Geneva's clock production was around 5,000 pieces, likely surpassed by its great competitor, London. The development of the clock industry is evident in the changes in production. Skilled workers in clockmaking and clock traders emerged.

Domenico Sella " Die gewerbliche Produktion in Europa 1500-1700, in Europäische Wirtschaftsgeschichte 16.-17. Jh., Stuttgart-New York, 1979, ford. Surján Zsófia