Aristocratic Lifestyle in Early Modern England (1558–1641)

The early modern aristocracy was characterized by ostentatious expenditures. On the one hand, they had to live in a manner befitting their dignity, while on the other, they were expected to act as noble hosts, leading lives that bolstered their prestige and flaunted their wealth. An earl was expected to maintain a large castle, several smaller rural estates, and a house in London with 60–100 servants and tables always laden with abundant food. They also needed to keep horses for travel and communication.

In the mid-16th century, nobles lived under conditions similar to the Middle Ages. In northern and western England, they resided in castles and monasteries, enduring cold, damp, and darkness. Monasteries were increasingly abandoned due to fears of profaning sacred spaces. In southern England, they lived in more comfortable homes. The 1570s and 1580s saw a boom in house construction. These homes were built on lands purchased from the church, often incorporating Dutch architectural elements. Building materials included stone (from monasteries), wood (from extensive forests), and bricks (brick production was just beginning). Between 1580 and 1620, England was transformed with this new material. There was a growing demand for comfort and private rooms. An architect discovered the importance of glass for lighting and ventilation in private buildings. Higher-ranking aristocrats built their castles on hilltops so they could be seen for miles. A unique phenomenon was the "prodigy house," a gigantic countryside mansion designed to display status and provide entertainment on weekends while secretly satisfying power ambitions and rivalries. After 1620, construction activity declined sharply. By then, enough houses had been built, and those wanting new homes often purchased them instead of building.

One of the most important markers of noble status was maintaining an "open table," a medieval custom that contributed significantly to financial difficulties. At 11 a.m., houses closed their gates and began setting tables. In the dining room, two tables were set. At the first sat the earl with his family and distinguished guests, while at the second were knights, respectable gentlemen, and their entourages. In the hall, three tables were prepared. At the first sat the earl's steward, auditor, secretary, equerry, tutor, fishpond overseer, and guests below knightly rank. At the second sat pages, tailors, and noble waiters, eating leftovers from the earl's table. At the third sat lower-ranking household members, including the cook, indoor servants, chamberlains, ushers, stable master, and hunting dog caretaker. A smaller table in the hall was for lower-ranking servants, such as the butcher, porter, and park overseer, who ate during a later setting. On October 7, 1612, the Earl of Salisbury fed 84 household members, seven guests, and their 33 attendants. During holidays, it was not uncommon for hundreds of guests to attend. With large gatherings came enormous amounts of food. Nobles often overate. Some examples: 80 people consumed one ox, five sheep weekly, 25–30 pigs annually, 30–40 calves and lambs annually, plus countless rabbits and poultry. Leftovers were distributed to the poor gathered at the gates. Meals also included bread and drinks. Each person drank 5–6 pints (1 pint = 0.5 liters) of beer daily, and annual consumption of red and white wine ranged from 750 to 1,250 gallons (1 gallon = 4.5 liters). Dairy products, fruit, butter, and eggs were rare, but 72 types of fish and 63 kinds of birds were eaten. The aristocracy's diet consisted of meat, bread, and beer or wine. The abundance of food harmed their health. Illnesses caused by overeating killed more people than wars, and doctors' dietary prescriptions were often ignored.

Clothing was another status symbol that led to extravagant spending. Fashion changed rapidly and required copious amounts of gold, silver, and lace. The royal family set fashion trends. Between 1603 and 1613, James I had a new cloak monthly, a new coat every three weeks, a new suit every ten days, new shoes and garters every five days, and new gloves daily. The king and queen spent £10,000 annually on silk and £25,000 on their wardrobe. In 1626–27, Charles I owned 513 pairs of shoes. Both city dwellers and country residents imitated this trend, and women desired shopping trips for clothing.

The elaborately dressed "peacocks" and "parrots" required proper transport. In the 16th century, horses and two-wheeled carts were the main transportation. Later, four-wheeled carriages emerged. By 1590, every aristocrat owned such a carriage, and within 25 years, even the gentry had them. On the eve of the revolution, a carriage cost £200, compared to £5 for a commercial cart. In addition to ceremonial coaches, a £45 traveling carriage was needed to visit rural estates. City sedan chairs, worth £25, were also common, and the horses pulling these carriages added to the expense.

After food, clothing, and transportation, gambling was the greatest expense. The principle was that a nobleman should only spend his leisure time in a wastefully elegant manner. Even the king was expected to be skilled at bowling, tennis, cockfighting, cards, horse racing, foot racing, bull-baiting, hunting, chess, and shooting. Wagers were placed with great enthusiasm. Gambling, led by the royal court, became a necessity for leisure. When the king participated, vast sums were spent. Henry VIII often played and rarely lost, while Elizabeth I hated losing. Gambling became a daily activity for lords, earls, dukes, and their wives, with hundreds of thousands of pounds changing hands. Writers mocked this habit, and laws were enacted against it, but to no avail.

Aristocrats organized grand funerals as their last opportunity to express their office and rank. Apothecaries and surgeons embalmed bodies, but funeral arrangements could take months. The number of attendees reflected the deceased's status, and the event was followed by the consumption of enormous quantities of food. Sometimes funeral expenses equaled a year's income. Most of the costs went toward black clothing, the hearse, and the funeral feast. After 1580, such expensive funerals became less common, and by 1615, some nobles were buried at night. Extravagant funerals were increasingly unaffordable and came to be viewed as pagan practices. Even graves became less ostentatious, and after 1620, simpler monuments were erected.

Lawrence Stone "The crisis of the aristokracy 1558-1641", Oxford, 1965, ford. Bányai Krisztina