1848: The Anatomy of European Revolutions

1. The Timing of Revolutions
   In a Europe characterized by uneven development, revolutions could sweep across the continent simultaneously because the fundamental trajectory of European development was the same. Each country followed the same general direction, though at different stages. The societies of various countries were marked by internal tensions, exacerbated by economic and financial crises. In the revolutionary situations that arose, the external political impact of a revolution breaking out in one country triggered a chain reaction in others.
2. Social and Political Forces
   In industrially developed countries, the bourgeoisie advanced, supporting moderate liberalism, parliamentarism, and constitutional monarchy. The middle bourgeoisie was enthusiastic about universal suffrage and republicanism. The primary tension lay between the working class and the bourgeoisie. Initially, workers served as the mass reserve of the bourgeois revolutions, but they acted independently during economic crises. In East-Central Europe, the main issue was the peasantry's mass pressure in their fight against serfdom. The intelligentsia also played a significant role, though it did not form an independent force and was aligned with other social classes.
3. The National Question
   In Germany and Italy, where nation-states did not yet exist, different political forces had divergent and ultimately unsuccessful visions of their creation. In East-Central Europe, multiethnic, large monarchies prevailed, and the rise of national consciousness became a source of conflict.
4. Phases of the Revolutions

• Opposition forces, forming a united front, successfully overthrew the government.
• The liberals withdrew, fracturing the unity of the opposition, leading to internal conflicts.
• Radicals attempted to continue the revolution on their own but were defeated.
• Counterrevolutionaries regained dominance and sidelined the liberals as well.

1. International Power Dynamics
   The chain reaction influenced not only the outbreak of revolutions but also their later phases. One retreat triggered another. The French example of suppressing workers had a discouraging effect on other revolutions. England's opposition to revolutions also had a negative impact. England would have opposed the creation of a unified Germany, as would the Tsarist power, which sought to strengthen its international position.
2. Lessons
   Despite their suppression, the revolutions were not without results. The bourgeois-national transformation, the overthrow of the feudal system, and the emancipation of serfs reached much of East-Central Europe. The era of capitalism could begin. Thus, the Hungarian revolution did not fail and can be considered victorious. French workers also grew stronger in their self-awareness. Ultimately, German and Italian unification was achieved from above, avoiding the revolutionary path deemed too dangerous. (1973)

Kosáry Domokos "A történelem veszedelmei", Magvető könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1987