During the Middle Ages, every country minted gold and silver coins of varying amounts and sizes. In the expanding international trade, different coins circulated, but domestic consumption could only be paid for using the local currency. Foreign coins had to be exchanged for domestic money. Some merchants began to specialize in currency exchange and...
In Europe, during approximately 150 years starting from the late 15th century, the population experienced a 50% increase. While this growth continued dynamically in the 16th century, it slowed down and eventually stagnated in the first half of the 17th century.
Records from Beauvais in France from 1693–94 document the significant rise in the prices of grain and other foodstuffs, the subsequent starvation, and the misery of the poor. The starving population resorted to eating cats and various animal remnants discarded by butchers (such as heads, entrails, offal, and blood). Others cooked roots and grasses...
In the 17th century, demographic growth in Europe came to a halt. This stagnation was so significant and accompanied by such severe shocks that it can be described as a demographic crisis. This crisis was a persistent characteristic of 17th-century demographic history. Its cyclical recurrence interrupted population growth. These fluctuations cannot...
In 14th-century England, children were treated as small adults, and early maturity was highly valued. It was believed that the happiness of children depended on developing their innate abilities, and therefore, all methods of education, even cruel ones, were considered acceptable.
The knightly title originally came with military obligations and was granted by commanders, even in the 16th century, on royal orders. Later, knights received their titles based on the annual income from their lands. In the late Middle Ages, the number of knights dramatically decreased. While there were about 1,200 knights in England in 1324, by...
The early modern aristocracy was characterized by ostentatious expenditures. On the one hand, they had to live in a manner befitting their dignity, while on the other, they were expected to act as noble hosts, leading lives that bolstered their prestige and flaunted their wealth. An earl was expected to maintain a large castle, several smaller...
The first children were born 10 to 18 months after the wedding. Conception before marriage was rare; if 3–4 years passed between the wedding and baptism, it indicated sexual problems or miscarriages. After the first child, others followed every two years until the woman reached forty or one of the spouses died. This meant 8–9 births over 20 years...
The structure of a 17th-century peasant house depended on financial circumstances, geographical conditions, soil type, climate, and local traditions. Houses were built from stone or adobe, with simple wooden frameworks and roofs made of thatch or straw. They typically had one square or rectangular room, with a stable at the end of the house....
The tendency towards luxury and opulence manifested not only in the construction of urban palaces and rural estates but also transformed the lifestyle of the European upper class. Expensive carriages appeared in the streets. The interior design of homes became more refined, with silk wallpapers, tapestries, carpets, intricately crafted furniture,...