English

In the last two centuries of the Middle Ages, significant changes occurred in the nature and structure of European trade. The center of international trade shifted northward. Mediterranean shipping declined, while Dutch and later English shipping rose to prominence. This shift was driven by the emergence of a modern, broader-based international...

In the 16th century, Flanders and Northern Italy were Europe's main industrial centers. Their connection was crucial for their development. The Italians transported spices and luxury goods from the East to Flanders, returning primarily with cloth. This trade occurred both overland and by sea. Overland routes passed through mountain passes like...

The Mediterranean Sea and the Baltic Sea were the two most important maritime waterways in Europe. The Atlantic Ocean coastline, stretching from Lisbon to Bremen, also featured excellent harbors. Coastal navigation along this region was just as significant as in the two aforementioned seas. The northern inland sea was dominated by the Dutch, but...

The cause of the current critical transformation, as with every past and future revolution, is fundamentally religious in nature. Humanity has become accustomed to understanding religion as a set of mysterious concepts envisioned above the visible world, or perhaps as particular customs and rituals meant to awaken inner forces, provide comfort,...

England's current difficulties are, in no small part, due to gentlemanly leadership. He was the role model: his habits, tastes, and lifestyle shaped the behavior of every Englishman.

The English like to boast that the concept of the gentleman is a uniquely English ideal. This ideal is exceedingly simple. Being a gentleman is more a state of being than an activity: a passive, receptive attitude toward life. He has no professional interests. He may have hobbies or indulge in certain eccentricities, but he cannot engage in any...