English

The two centuries between the 15th and 17th centuries marked the age of the creation of vast overseas empires. The struggle for the seas and new territories divided Europe into two opposing camps.

In the 12th century, the kingdom, which had separated from Castile, had its capital in Lisbon. After the extinction of the legitimate male line of the Burgundy dynasty, an illegitimate member of the family established the "false Burgundy" dynasty at the end of the 14th century and began the conquest of Ceuta, Madeira, and the Azores.

The dynamically developing Christian religion reshaped the value system of the Roman Empire and provided new directions and goals for human life. During the empire's crisis period, teachings about the Kingdom of Heaven and an impending peaceful world easily resonated with the dreams of the poorer classes.

Medieval Florence was an economic powerhouse. In the 15th century, it had 270 wool-processing factories, 83 silk manufacturing establishments, and 33 banks. After the economic crisis of the 14th century, wool production declined and was replaced by silk production. The number of wool processors in Florence decreased from 270 to 63 by 1537, while...

During the Middle Ages, every country minted gold and silver coins of varying amounts and sizes. In the expanding international trade, different coins circulated, but domestic consumption could only be paid for using the local currency. Foreign coins had to be exchanged for domestic money. Some merchants began to specialize in currency exchange and...

In Europe, during approximately 150 years starting from the late 15th century, the population experienced a 50% increase. While this growth continued dynamically in the 16th century, it slowed down and eventually stagnated in the first half of the 17th century.

Records from Beauvais in France from 1693–94 document the significant rise in the prices of grain and other foodstuffs, the subsequent starvation, and the misery of the poor. The starving population resorted to eating cats and various animal remnants discarded by butchers (such as heads, entrails, offal, and blood). Others cooked roots and grasses...

In the 17th century, demographic growth in Europe came to a halt. This stagnation was so significant and accompanied by such severe shocks that it can be described as a demographic crisis. This crisis was a persistent characteristic of 17th-century demographic history. Its cyclical recurrence interrupted population growth. These fluctuations cannot...

In 14th-century England, children were treated as small adults, and early maturity was highly valued. It was believed that the happiness of children depended on developing their innate abilities, and therefore, all methods of education, even cruel ones, were considered acceptable.